It would be difficult to prove that instruments as old as the cittern had a precise, unbroken past. Throughout history the instrument has sometimes disappeared from view and then unexpectedly reappeared.
Even though it may be difficult to determine the exact development of the cittern, in certain historical periods it enjoyed the same success as the lute: at the beginning of the 16th Century until the second half of the 17th Century, and then from the mid 18th Century until the beginning of the 19th Century.
In certain countries, such as Portugal, the cittern has been played throughout history and it has maintained the same shape because the timbre of the instrument is particularly suited to the traditional Fado music. The instrument is still widely played today.
The cittern is called the "cetera" in Corsica.
Even though the music is steeped in tradition a lot has now been lost and what remains has been reworked a countless number of times by musicians with various degrees of talent. The music has suffered considerably due to various occurrences in history that have affected Corsica's cultural heritage.
It goes without saying that much has been written for and performed on the instrument, but it is mainly the oral tradition that has been the driving force behind the cultural background and the type of music played on the cetera, an instrument probably related to the "cetra" or "cetara" its Tuscan cousin.
The cetera is nevertheless a more popular instrument than the renaissance cittern that is generally considered to be the more "noble" of the two. The tuning, pitch and overall shape of the renaissance cittern are far more codified.
The cittern is very often used in medieval, renaissance and baroque instrumental ensembles of various origins.
The Cetera may be said to have forged its own cultural and social history, which nevertheless, remains very mysterious.
I will attempt to describe this instrument as I see it, based on my observations and experience learning to play it as part of my personal medieval and renaissance studies. I am also fortunate in being able to benefit from the knowledge and know-how transmitted to me by my elders and people with greater experience than myself.
The following is therefore only my personal view of how the instrument may have evolved...
The cittern developed throughout the whole of medieval and renaissance Europe, mainly due to the plectrum- and quill-struck double courses of steel strings that gave the instrument a powerful volume and clear timbre.
The cittern became popular in the 12th Century; its flexibility and rich timbre were perfectly suited to the monody played by the troubadours and trouvères who wandered over Europe in the Middle Ages taking an immense musical and literary culture with them. The cittern is also found in the "Cantiguas de Sancta Maria" of Alfonse X the Wise, 430 pieces of the manuscript of which have survived. The pieces were probably inspired by the "virelai" of the troubadours in Picardy and Provence.
Paintings and images from the time clearly show the extent to which these instruments were used.
Although the cittern adapted to new musical tastes as the renaissance period approached, the structure and shape of the instrument changed only slightly throughout the ages.
In the 16th Century the cittern was used as a polyphonic instrument and many treatises were published, for example by the French lutenist Adrian le Roy, the English composer Thomas Robinson with his "New Citharen Lessons" of 1609 and Anthony Holborne's "The Cittharn Schoole" of 1597. A large number of collections were written in tablature and they are often pieces of high musical quality.
The cittern generally has four courses tuned as follows working from the top to the bottom course :
E, D, G, A or E, D, G, B depending on the tuning.
Drawing and tablature of a French cittern by Marin Mersenne in the 17th Century :
The number of strings varies depending on the country and period...
Citterns had 4, 5, 6, or 8 courses and, according to Marin Mersenne in his music treatise "traité d'harmonie universelle" published in 1636, "the Italians put as many as nine or ten courses of strings".
The Corsican cetera corse, which is probably related to the Tuscan cittern, usually has eight courses today ; depending on the string length, this enables it to be tuned identically to the European lute, i.e. :
- working from the top to the bottom course :
G, D, A, F, C, G, F, D...
- or tuned very similarly to the modern guitar :
E, B, G(or F#), D, A, E...
Personally I use a five-course Cetera tuned as folllows :
G, D, A, D, D at the octave
There are also a great many other ways of tuning the cittern and although this constitutes one of the difficulties concerning the instrument, it also contributes to its rich sound.
The metal strings can either be tuned in unison or with octaves.
The plectrum technique is still used for this instrument today but the lute or guitar technique may also be used (see the description of the technique in the "A brief description of the lute" section).
The techniques all have their advantages and drawbacks: The plectrum gives the string plenty of clear, powerful attack that is both rhythmic and percussive, similarly to the Oud players that still use the ancient medieval lute technique today.
The finger technique produces a softer sound, lending itself to arpeggio-style playing that is more suitable for repertoires requiring several voices and solo playing.
The cittern is gaining in popularity once again and may be found in all sorts of traditional music, whether early music or modern writing. It is also means renewed interest in the cetera and Corsican music.
Even though Corsica has been considerably influenced by the many invasions to which it has been victim throughout the ages, it has always managed to maintain its own musical identity through its oral tradition, in other words the polyphonic pieces sung a capella or the monody pieces sung either a capella or accompanied by a cetera, for example in "sérénade", or the traditional Corsican violin the viulinu, for example in the improvisation "currente". Traditional flutes may also be used in Corsican music...
The cultural side of life in Corsica has always been fully developed: family get togethers always ended in singing, violin, guitar and cetera playing in the truest Corsican tradition. The long, warm evenings invariably ended on a magical note !
The cetera has gradually been rediscovered and its wonderful range of sound colours has been expanded.
It is embedded in the past and is part of Corsica's musical future as well as its longstanding artistic heritage.